Brick masonry 

Introduction 

Technical term used in brick masonry 

Bond in brick 

Laying of bricks 

Check in laying of bricks 

Precaution in construction of brick masonry 

 Job layout in civil engineering 

Introduction 

The site layout is the plan of any construction site. In which, showing the different uses of materials and their area in construction. In addition, it explains the relationship with the site to the facilities, materials, etc. located nearby. Meaning whether the materials used in construction are available in that area or not. If it is, then it will take less construction cost. Job layout definition 

Job layout

Principle of job layout 

There are following principles of job layout. 

•   There should always be two doors or openings at the construction site to allow easy entry and exit. If for some reason we are unable to provide two openings, then we make a cross over near that opening.

•   The General Office should always be given near the main gate

•   The warehouse should always be behind the General Office. This makes it easier for workers to carry and bring goods. Another advantage of this is that the observer is easy to maintain. Job layout for construction site 

•   The site layout design process should take into account the number of temporary facilities required for construction, the size and shape of the site, as well as the construction schedule.

•   The following temporary facilities should be available at the construction site like temporary office, cranes, storage areas for materials and equipments, workshops, access roads, rest areas, safety and health facilities, and security features.  Job layout plan drawing 

•   Temporary road should be constructed on the construction site so that materials can be easily exchanged and construction happens quickly.

There are following procedure for doing job layout on the construction site :--

Site clearance 

➡️      Site clearance is an important factor to be considered in job layout. 

➡️     It is first step for preparing construction site it involves cleaning of stone, vegetation, etc. and removal of soil to reduce level according to propose site. 

➡️     It ensures that the site should be free from vegetation and should have a suitable bearing capacity to improve the stability of building.

Preparation of job layout 

➡️     A plan in which placing of the site office, medical store, material storage house, labour quarter, and other facilities are properly prepared is called as job layout or site layout. 

➡️     The arrangement of process in such that the work is done smoothly and economically where should be proper co-relation for co-ordination among different unit. 

➡️     Substructure involves foundation and before construction of it we have to perform various activities such as site clearance, job layout, marking, etc. 

Job layout depends upon following factor 

1. Location, Area, and Topography 
2. Method of construction 
3. Type of work and structure 

Job layout on the ground 

It can be done by two methods are following 

1. Centre line method 
2. Face line method 

1. Centre line method 

Procedure 

From the plan of drawing centre line of wall are calculated and set out on the ground. 

STEP - 1

Suppose 1, 2, 3, ........., 11 the center line. These lines are extended 1.5 metres to 2 metres away from the outer edge of the excavation. 

STEP - 2

Corners point are marked using peg. Centre lines are marked clearly by stretching rope, and then after it is marked by line. 

STEP - 3

Corners point of rooms are checked by diagonal AC, BD,  EG,  FH. 

STEP - 4

Width of excavation is to be marked on the ground by using peg at appropriate position. 

STEP -5

Now width of excavation is shown by using line furrow with a spade. 

STEP -6

If plan of building is complicated than layout of building is done by using pegs at suitable interval. 

Center line method

2. Face line method 

Procedure 

From the drawing calculate the length of wall exterior to exterior which is called as face of wall. 

STEP - 1

Measure the distance on ground with the help of measuring tape and mark it with line. 

STEP - 2

The width of wall is then mark on the ground by the help of rope, lime, etc.  

STEP - 3

The face line of the wall is extended 2 metres from the face of wall,  it is so because during excavation the face line may get disappear. 

STEP - 4

For the proper rectangulation  of room diagonals where checked, such as AC, BD, EG, FH, IK, & JL. 

STEP - 5

If the plan of building is more complicated then use of pegs is according to ground condition. 

Face line method

Necessities of job layout 

•   For continuous supply of material.

•   To properly utilize the area available on the construction site.

•   To use the material properly and check its waste.

•   To provide space for vehicles on the same site.

•   To reduce confusion and prevent accident.

Precautions during Job layout 

The following precautions should be kept in account when marking layout on the ground.

•   Take correct measurement of distance by using steel tape. 

•   Levelling is done by carefully either by dumpy level or meason level. 

•   Take correct plumb bob for transferring the point to the ground. 

•   Mark the correct centre line and phase line on the ground.

Site clearance

Principle of site selection of building 

For good planning and development of building the site selection is very important. 

•   The purpose of building and privacy is important. 

•   Before site selection one should study by law of local community. 

•   The purpose of building which is to be constructed is pre-determined. 

•   The site should be located in fully developed area or fast developing area. 

•   The site should be situated at elevated place with uniform slope. 

•   The soil of site should have good bearing capacity.

•   The site should be situated in that area where community services like police station, fire station, street cleaning, etc. and amenities services like hospitals, schools, markets, etc. and utilities services like electricity, drainage system, etc are easily available. Job layout 

 Defect in timber

When a good Timber is subjected to any defect it losses following property. 

1. Colour 
2. Strength  
3. Decay  
4. Sound and 
5. Smell 

Defect in Timber is divided into five types 

1. Defect due to conversion 
2. Defect due to insect 
3. Defect due to fungi 
4. Defect due to natural forces 
5. Defect due to seasoning 

1. Defect in timber due to conversion 

This defect is caused when it is converted into different commercial shape and sizes. 

There are following types :-

A. Cheap stain 

This defect is indicated by signed or mark on finished surface of timber which is formed due to planning machine. Chip mark in timber 

B. Torn stain 

This defect is formed due to falling of instrument on timber during finishing. This defect is indicated by a small depression on finished surface of timber.

C. Diagonal stain 

This effect is formed due to improper sawing in timber. It is indicated by a diagonal mark on straight ground surface. 

D. Wane 

This defect is indicated by rounded mark on the finished surface of timber. In this defect original bark of timber is present on finished surface. 

2. Defect in timber due to insects 

This defect is mainly caused due to eating up to by insects. There are following types of defect due to in insects 

A. Beetles/Borers 

They form fine hole of diameter 2 mm in size. Conversion of timber into powder like substance without affecting top surface of timber. All types of timber get affected by Beatles. 

B. Marine borers 

They are found in is salty water. They form tunnel of size 25 mm in diameter and 60 mm in length. The timber which is affected by marine borers losses its strength and colour. There is no any timber which has completely immune from attack of marine borers. 

C. Termites 

These insects are also called as a white ant. It always lives in colony, and very fast in eating away the wood. Makes tunnel in different directions, and usually not disturb outer layer of timber. Few timber like teak, sal, etc. can resist the action of termite. 

3. Defects in timber due to fungi 

There are following types

A. Blue stain 

The sap wood of timber is stained to bluish colour by the action of certain fungi called as blue stain. It causes loss in appearance of wood. 

B. White rot 

This effect is mainly occurs due to the attack of fungi on the cellulose of timber convert it into white colour. 

C. Brown rot 

D. Heart rot  

It is the type of defect in which certain type of fungi attacks on the heart wood of timber is called as heart rot. 

E. Wet rot 

Some fungi cause chemical deposition on timber which converts into powder form. The alternate wet and dry condition favors the development of fungi which ultimately causes wet rot. To prevent the wet rot  we can use well seasoned wood or by painting Timber with Coal Tar. 

F. Dry rot 

Some types of fungi feed on wood and during feeding it converts it into dry powder form called as dry rot. Dry rot  occurs when proper ventilation & no free circulation of air is found. When a part of tree is seriously affected by dry rot, the damage portion may be completely removed and remaining portions should be painted with cuso4. 

4. Defect in timber due to natural forces 

A. Burls  

These are formed when a tree is subjected to injury or shocks in its young age. Due to sock irregular projection appears on the surface of timber. This defect is called as burls. It is also known as excrescences. Burls defects in timber 

B. Chemical stain 

Some trees causes to excrete the chemical and these chemicals ultimately cause stain on the surface of timber is called as chemical stain. Due to chemical stain the appearance of timber may get affected. What are natural defects in timber 

C. Knots 

This defect is mainly caused due to cut off branches of tree. The portion from which branch is removed receive nourishment from the adjacent stem for long time, and it ultimately results in formation of dark ring called as knots. It is hard and tough.Types of knots in timber 

D. Rind Gall 

Rind Gall is made up of two words. The first word is rind which means bark and the second word is gall which means abnormal growth. In this defect, a projection is formed on the stem of timber due to improper cutting of branches of tree called as rind gall. 

It is rarely found in trees. The part of the timber that is in it is very weak and not durable. And different parts of that timber have different strengths.

E. Druxiness 

It is indicated by white decay spot or stain on the surface of timber is called as druxiness. 

F. Foxiness 

It is indicated by red or yellow colour around the pith towards the outer layer. It generally happens to improper ventilation. 

G. Shake  

Actually shakes made in timber are cracks which cause high heat, wind, frost at the time of growth of the tree. It is that crack which separate the fibers of wood completely and partially.

It is following types of shakes depending upon their shapes and positions. 

Cup shape 

•   It is circular crack which not whole ring of timber. 

Heart shake  

Ring shake 

•   It is a type of cup shape which covers whole circular ring. 

Star shake 

•   It is a crack which extends from outer edge towards the shape wood. 

Radial shake 

•   It is type of star which is generally find cracks. 

5. Defect in timber due to seasoning 

Seasoning is the process of removal of moisture from the timber by providing proper ventilation. The moisture content of seasoning wood about 10 to 12% of it dry weight. 

There are following types of seasoning defects 

A. Bow 

The curvature formed along the length wise direction this defect is called as bow. 

B. Cup 

The curvature formed along the width wise direction this defect is called as cup. 

C. Check 

Check is a kind of crack that separates fibers, but it does not extend from end to another. 

D. Split 

The defect in which cracks formed from one end to other end is called split. 

E. Twist 

These type of defects are formed by twisting of timber during seasoning. 

F. Honey combing 

Stress is developed in the heart wood during the drying process or seasoning for these stresses, cracks, etc. are created in the form of honey combing texture.Defects in timber 

 Timber

Introduction 

It is large piece of wood which is used in building, carpentry, and other engineering purpose. The word Timber is derived from the old English word Timberian, meaning to build. Timber is also known as Lumber in the US and Canada.

Timber is a natural construction material that has been used for thousands of centuries. Due to the research being done on Timber in modern times, we can know its properties better. As a result, its production and applications have increased more than ever.What is timber 

It is also used in structural purpose as well as interior design because it is a natural material, due to which it is completely eco-friendly, renewable, and recyclable material. Due to being a natural material, its properties look different in different environment or area. 

All the wood which is used in construction work is called Timber or Lumber. In other words, we can say that every wood which has minimum yield strength, and which can be changed to standard size is called Timber.

In this blog, we will discuss what is Timber, its different types, its properties and function.

There are three types of timber :-----

1. Stand timber 
2. Rough timber and 
3. Converted timber 

1. Stand timber 

The timber contained in a living tree.

Stand Timber

2. Rough timber 

The timber which is obtained from after falling of tree. 

Rough Timber

3. Converted timber 

The timber which is sawn and cut into commercial size.

Converted Timber

Classification of timber 

1. Softwood 

The softwood species are coniferous and include spruces, pines, and firs. These trees generally retain their needle-like leaves throughout the year. These trees are generally evergreen. Hence, softwood trees are also known as evergreens. Types of timber in civil engineering 

Botanically, softwood is also known as gymnosperms. The origin of the word gymnosperms is a Greek word meaning "naked seed". This means that gymnosperms give seeds in cones instead of giving seeds from flowers. Generally these trees are grown in cold climates.

2. Hardwood 

The hardwood species are deciduous and include  oaks, birches, and maples. They have broad leaves, which they lose in winter. 

The hardwoods of the temperate zone are usually weather-based, while most tropical hardwoods retain their leaves throughout the year. Hardwoods mainly consist of large longitudinal cells and complex cell structures.

Difference between softwood and hardwood :--

•    The wood from both species is used  for structural timber, but softwoods are much more common in Europe due to their greater availability and lower costs.Importance of timber  

•    Never get confused about the word of both that Softwood does not mean that its timber is soft and hardwood does not mean that its wood is hard because balsa is a hardwood but is softer and less dense than any softwood, whereas pitch pine is a softwood that is very hard and more dense than all hardwoods.

•    Softwoods are light in color and hardwoods are dark in color. 

•    Softwoods are light in weight and hardwoods are heavy in weight. 

•    Softwoods have resinous structure and hardwoods have close grained structure.

•    Softwood is strong to withstand direct tension but weak to withstand compression or shear and the hardwood withstand equally in tension, compression, and shear. 

 Physical property of timber

Appearance 

A good timber should have good look or appearance naturally if it is not it should adopt painting. 

Hardness 

A good timber should have sufficient hardness, so that it can be resist loss due to friction. 

Toughness  

A good Timber should be sufficient tough,  so that it can resist impact load. 

Strength 

A good timber should have sufficient strength, so that it can resist compressive force sufficiently. 

Fire resistance 

Timber is bad conductor of heat. It should resist fire so that a proper duration of time should be their to leave out the fire building. What is the properties of timber 

Smell 

A good Timber should have a sweet smell. Bad smell of timber indicates its low strength. 

Sound 

A timber should give ringing sound when stretched. 

Shape 

A good Timber should be able to retain its shape during cutting, seasoning, etc. It should not wrap, or twist during seasoning. 

Working conduction 

A good Timber should be easily workable. It should not clog the teeth of saw, capable of easily planned, etc.  

Defect in timber 

A good timber should not have serious effect.

Mechanical properties of timber 

Density 

The wood substance / unit volume and moisturizing content present in a timber is called density of that timber. In other words, we can say that the timber in which the quantity of wood is more, its density will be more. Characteristics of timber

Density is an important indicator of the properties and strength of timber. The timber which has high density shrinks quickly.

Moisture content 

Timber is a hygroscopic material, which means that it exchanges its moisture, which affects its properties. 

Moisture content is the most important of all woods factors that affect its strength, properties, and durability.

Temperature 

Timber has low co-efficiency of thermal expansion, and thermal conductivity. In other words, we can say that Timber is an excellent heat insulator. Its strength also is depends on thermal properties.

Durability 

There is always a risk of different organism attacks on Timber. Fungi use it as their food source. Due to which its strength, durability, appearance, etc. also decreases. 

It is very important to have a moisture to produce fungi in timber. If we control the moisture content present in the timber, then we can reduce the damage caused by these organisms. 

Apart from this, many insects and pests like termites, white ants, borers, etc. attack on timber and destroy it. So the amount of moisture content in the timber should always be maintained at 20%.

For more information go through below link 

Uses of timber 

•    It is used in frame of a door and window, shutter of a door and window, furniture, like chair, table, bed, etc.  

•    It is used in manufacturing of musical instruments like harmonium, tabla, drum, flute, etc. What is the use of timber 

•    It is used in manufacturing of agricultural instruments like axe, plough, etc. 

•    It was also used in railway sleeper, packing case, etc.  

•    It is used in construction of formwork, structural component like beam, column, lintel, etc. 

•    It is used in construction of temporary bridges, boats, etc. 

•    It is used for decorator purpose like showcases, furniture, etc. 

•   It is used in the body of making vehicles such as buses, lorries, trains, boats etc.

•    It is used for industrial purposes such as making paper, cardboard, wallpaper, etc.

•    Timber is an important source of energy. It is used in domestic works such as keeping the house warm, cooking, heating water.Experts believe that 40% of the timber harvested from the forest is used as fuel source.