Mortar 

1. It is a workable paste which is a mixture of sand, cement, lime  stone, dust, water, etc.  
2. It is used to bind building blocks such as stone, brick, concrete, etc.  together. 
3. It is used to fill the tracks, holds, etc.  
4. In the vast area we use pitch, asphalt, and soft mud and clay as mortar with brick.What is mortar used for 
5. The word mortar originated from the Latin word morterium which means crushed.
6. Nowadays we use Portland cement to make mortar which is called cement mortar, but in olden times lime was used to make mortar which is called lime mortar.Mortar gun 
7. Lime mortar was used in making special buildings and monuments.

Types of mortar 

1. Cement mortar 
2. Lime mortar 
3. Surkhi mortar 
4. Gauge mortar 
5. Gypsum mortar 

1. Cement mortar 

The type of mortar in which cement is used as a binding material and sand as fine aggregate with water, called as a cement mortar. Cement mortar ratio and uses 

1. Cement mortar has more strength, and it can be used in water logged area. 
2. Cement mortar is used in large area like masonry works, patching, filling, plastering, floor levelling, repairing damaged concrete, rendering, and development of precast products. 
3. Fine aggregate of 2 mm size is used in cement mortar. 
4. Generally the ratio of cement to sand is 1:2 and 1:6 in the cement mortar, and the ratio of cement to sand depends on what kind of work it is being used in. 
5. Cement and water are set and harden due to a special chemical process called hydration. 
6. There are different types of cement available in market but generally Portland cement is used for masonry works.

2. Lime mortar 

The type of mortar in which lime is used as a binding material is called as lime mortar. 

The assumption behind using lime mortar was that after it evaporates water and absorb carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere it becomes hard and strong, but it was only theoretically correct. Actually it took a very long time to strengthen.

Lime may be two types :-

A. Fat lime 

B. Hydraulic lime 

A. Fat lime 

The lime which has 95% pure calcium oxide  (Cao) and less than 7.5 % clay is called fat lime. 

It shrinks  to greater extend so, it is used two to three times of volume of sand. It is used in plaster work, painting work, distempering, etc. 

B. Hydraulic lime 

The lime in which more than 7.5 % clay and remaining pure calcium oxide (Cao) is found called as hydraulic lime. 

1. It is used in mortar in ratio 1:2. 
2. Hydraulic lime has more strength than fat lime. 
3. Fat lime is not used in damp conduction but hydraulic lime may be used in damp conduction. 
4. Hydraulic lime is used in foundation, brick work in super structure, etc.  

3. Surkhi mortar 

The type of mortar in which surkhi is used as fine aggregate in instead of sand lime / cement is used as a binding material is called as surkhi mortar. Surkhi mortar uses and ratio 

1. Surkhi powder is sieve through I. S. no. - 9 , so that the residue left is not more than 10% . 
2. In England, surkhi are also known as trass or brick-dust. 
3. Surkhi are not used in plastering and pointing because after some time it springs. Mud mortar 
4. It is used only in general work such as foundations and super structures.
5. Use of surkhi is useful in sea water construction.
6. It is used in some of the largest dams and mass structures in India in association with cement concrete as an admixture.Advantages and disadvantages of surkhi mortar 
7. This reduces the temperature produced during the formation of mass cement concrete, and also reduced cracking.

4. Gauge  mortar 

The type of mortar in which cement is used to improve the quality of lime mortar and to achieve early strength of lime mortar is called as gauge mortar. Gauged mortar uses and ratio 

•  The process of mixing cement with lime is called as gauging and mortar obtained called gauge mortar. 

5. Gypsum mortar 

The type of mortar in which gypsum is used as a binding material, sand as fine aggregate is called gypsum mortar. Gypsum mortar  mix ratio 

1. It is also known as plaster of Paris.  
2. It is used in historical or monumental building. 
3. The plaster of paris was used to repair structures. 
4. It was used by the Egyptians in building the pyramid.
5. It was also used to rebuild the city of Paris.
6. Gypsum does not form hydrates, due to which it is stable even in water.Gypsum mortar uses 

Function of mortars

1. It is used to fill the gap / cracks in building. 
2. To bind building unit, such as bricks, stone, concrete block, etc. to act as a single unit. 
3. To provide strength to the building unit to resist  vertical and horizontal load. 
4. To provide weatherproof property. 
5. Mortar is used to fill the empty space or irregular shape present in the brick masonry or block masonry.
6. In this, we decorate the brick masonry by mixing different colors or making a pattern.Application of mortar 

Properties of mortar 

1. The mortar should have greater adhesion properties, so that, it can joint two or more component  strongly. Properties of mortar in masonry 
2. Mortar should be economically. 
3. It should resist penetration of water. 
4. Mortar should be desirable. 
5. It should resist  weathering action due to neutral force.
6. When the mortar is cured, it becomes hard, and takes the form of rigid structures.
7. The mortar mix should be workable, meaning it can be used easily and can be easily transported to the construction site.
8. To form joints of pipes.Properties of good mortar 
9. It should be set and hardened easily and quickly to speed up the construction speed.
10. It should have the ability to develop a designed stress.

Brick wall

 Brick

•  Brick is a material made of clay that is used in a large area. 

•  It is the core of almost all construction work. 

•  It is a building material which is used to construct super structure like wall, column, slab, etc. Uses of brick 

Sizes of brick 

Frog 

It is an impression made on the top of the brick. The dimension of frog is 100 mm in length,  40 mm in width, and 10-20 mm in depth. 

The purpose of providing a frog is to create good bond between mortars, and bricks on the adjacent layer of course. 

Constituents of brick soil

•  The brick clay consists silica in 50-60 %.

Function 

•  Responsible for providing strength and hardness. 

•  Prevent from shrinkage and cracking. 

If it is excess

•  Brick becomes hard and brittle in nature. 

2. Alumina

Function 

•  It imparts the plasticity property, so that brick can be easily moulded. 

•  If it is present in high quantity, makes the brick refractory. 

If it is excess 

•  Cause crack of brick and become to hard on burning. 

3. Lime

Function 

•  It acts as flux. 

•  Cause silica to fuse during burning, and bind the brick particles together. 

If it is excess 

•  It forms lumps cause bricks to distort shape.

4. Iron oxide

•  The brick clay consists iron oxide in 5 % - 6 %.

Function 

•  Provide colour

      a.) Red cherry  - Presence of O2
      b.)  Dark cherry - Absence of O2

•  Improve durability and impermiability 

If it is excess 

•  Change in colour 

•  Cause efflorescence 

5. Magnesia 

•  Decrease shrinkage 
•  Impart yellow colour to the brick, when it is in small quantity.

6. Other components 

Manufacturing of brick 

The manufacturing of How are clay brick made brick is done with the help of soil. First of all, soil is dug out to a depth of 20 cm, and thrown. Now soil is excavated to require depth, and spread on the ground. It is cleared of from stone, pebbles, plastic, roots of vegetation, etc. 

The excavated soil is left to the ground for weathering for two, or four weeks. Now the soil is mixed with other ingredients of brick if it is in less quantity with water. In pug mil or by human or cattle. 

The process of Kneading of brick mixing clay, water, and other ingredients is known as kneading. And the whole process is called as tempering.

2. Moulding of brick 

After preparation of clay moulding of brick is done. 

There are two methods of moulding of brick 

A. Hand moulding 

B. Machine moulding 

In hand moulding a mould is made up of wood or steel is used. The size of mould is generally 12% greater than the size of brick. Tempered clay Brick manufacturing process in India  is forced into the mould such that it fill the corners of mould and excesses clay is removed. The mould is then lifted, and row of bricks are left on the ground.

When a large number of brick is to be prepare, then machine mould is used.

3. Drying of brick 

After moulding of brick drying of brick is done either naturally or artificially. 

In natural process the bricks are placed in the sunlight 1 to 2 days for becoming a sufficient hard so that it can handle from one place to another place.

Drying of bricks are also done by placing the brick into the shed with open side. 

So that it ensure a free circulation of air. The drying period of bricks varies from 7 to 14 days.

4. Burning of bricks

After drying of bricks burning of bricks is done by using either clamp or kilns. 

There are two methods of burning of bricks. Burning process of brick 

A. Kilns burning 

B. Clamp burning 

A. Kilns burning 

In this, the temperature is maintained 900 °C  to  1100 °C to burn the brick. The efficiency of kilns burning is 90%. In kilns burning brick was burnt for 24 hours, and left 12 days for cooling. These burning is used for mass production of bricks.

B. Clamp burning 

In clamp burning the bricks where burnt for 2 to 3 weeks as per requirement. The efficiency of clamp burning is a 60% . The loading period of clamp burning is about 6 months.

Classification of bricks

These bricks are uniform in shape and size and also uniformly red in colour.

•  These bricks have minimum compressive strength 10.5 MPa. 

•  It should not have a water absorbent more than 20% .

•  When bricks are strucked,  it produces ringing sound (metallic).

•  When it is scratching Types of brick with our nails, it does not produce any mark on the surface of brick.

•  Reddish in colour.

2. Second class brick

•  These bricks are slightly over burn.

•  These bricks have rough surface and generally hard.

•  The compressive strength of these bricks are greater than 7 MPa. 

•  Reddish orange in colour. 

•  The moisture absorbent of these bricks are less than 22 % .

•  When it is strucked together it produces ringing sound (less metallic).

3. Third class brick 

•  These bricks are slightly under burnt 

•  The minimum compressive strength of these bricks are 5 MPa. Properties of brick 

•  The moisture absorbent of these bricks are less than 25% .

•  It does not produce metallic ringing sound when strucked together.

•  When it is scratching with nail produce mark on the surface of bricks.

•  It is light red in colour or reddish yellow. 

•  It is soft, so that it can break easily.

4. Fourth class brick /Jhamma brick

•  These bricks are over burnt, and irregular in shape. 

•  It gets twisted due to excess fusion & temperature.

•  It is dark bluish, and reddish brown in colour. 

•  These bricks are used as aggregate in construction of flour, road, foundation, etc. 

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Special bricks

2. Bull nose brick 

•  These bricks are manufactured with rounded corner.

•  It is used in construction of circular columns, wall, etc. 

3. Pavement brick 

•  This types of bricks are used in construction of pavement, garden, floor, workshop flour, etc.  

•  The brick clay consists higher percentage of iron oxide which is responsible for providing  strength, and it is sufficient hard.

Pavement brick

4. Hollow / Perforated bricks 

•  These bricks are also known as cavity bricks. 

•  It is light in weight and generally one-third weight of normal bricks ,whereas, weight of normal brick is about (3-3.5)kg. 

•  It is used in partition wall to reduce transmission of heat, dampness, sound, etc. 

Hollow bricks

5. Fly ash brick 

•  Fly ash is the residue which is obtained from combustion of coal.What are constituents of good brick

•  Fly ash brick contains fly ash, lime or cement, silica, water, etc. compressed at 28 MPa, and cured with steam for 24 hours.

Contouring

Content

Interpolation of contour 

Contouring

Content

Contour or contour line 

Contouring 

Contour map

Contour interval

Horizontal equivalent 

Contour gradient 

Uses of contour map

1. What is surveying and its classification
2. Principle of surveying and types of scale
3. Accessories of linear measurement

Contour interval depends upon following factors

2. Nature of the ground  

3. The purpose of the map 

4. Time & expense of the field work 

Instruments used for measurements of area of any plan 

1. Polar planimeter